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Inflammatory cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils, produce ROS and RNS as part of the immune response [58]

Within this framework, the PKA pathway is central: cAMP activation triggers PKA, which promotes protein secretion, facilitates fluid secretion by elevating intracellular calcium levels, and activates cAMP response elementbinding protein (CREB), a key transcription factor coordinating these downstream signaling events [73]

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In skeletal muscle, they downregulate atrophy-associated genes (MuRF1, MAFbx) and upregulate myogenic factors (MyoD, MyoG), thereby improving perfusion and energy metabolism

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The uncomfortable answer is that a consumer patch can reference a famous drug without containing it and without meeting the safety and quality standards required for prescription therapy